In China painting is looked upon as the noblest form of artistic expression. However, its aesthetic ideals, the tools and methods used to express them, and the forms which the expression takes differ greatly from those of the West.

To most Western observers Chinese paintings seem strange and rather stylized, because the Western eye is seeking in them familiar forms and traditional treatment of perspective and light and shade. These are not present in the painting of the Far East. The Chinese painter never strives to depict accurately the changing effects of sunlight and shade or the exact details of a subject. Rather he seeks to show by subtle use of his brush the most salient characteristics of his subject. His is the attempt to suggest to his observer the true essence of his subject and to achieve it with the greatest simplicity. Chinese painting is evocative. A successful painting should stimulate in the observer the emotions felt by the artist when he or she was inspired to paint it. No Chinese landscape is an accurate delineation of any one geographical location, but rather an assemblage of many aspects which have been observed by the artist ,in his travels in a particular vicinity. No portrait is solely a realistic likeness of the subject; instead it is also a visual expression of character.

Chinese painting is primarily studio work. No artist paints directly from his subject. He often sketches studies until he feels his brush has mastered their intricacies and only then turns to compose the painting, which is executed quickly and surely from memory; or, having made mental notes after close observations of a favorite landscape, the artist retires to his studio and puts together a landscape which to him, and he hopes to his observer, expresses a typical aspect of an area. As the artist had traveled through the countryside the observer is also expected to travel visually through the landscape. There is no set point of view in such a Chinese painting. The observer must change. his point of view as did the artist.

Perhaps the most apt description of the ideals of Chinese artists was phrased by the late John E. Lodge, who said: "Their landscapes were type-landscapes, their human beings, birds, flowers, insects, phoenixes, dragons were all typical. Theirs was an art of suggestion rather than representative, and their technique naturally developed toward abstract simplicity rather than concrete elaboration. They sought, in fact, to express the organic continuity of consciousness rather than the functional individuality of matter; to realize rather than idealize or sentimentalize reality."

The primary condition of the picture as a decoration on a flat surface is never forgotten. Beauty of design, composition, and the harmonious effect of line and color are outstanding elements. Linear perspective was not used, but a feeling of distance was created by making distant objects smaller and eliminating detail. A formula of space was also used-whereby objects in the foreground were placed closely together and those in the background were placed farther apart in a vertical relationship, so that the observer had the feeling of standing on an elevation looking down on the scene.

Western artists have always thought of the human figure as the most expressive and finest of symbols. Ch'an Buddhism, which taught that the world was transitory and miserable and that flesh was a burden, sought to escape the physical world by contemplating universal life and truth, and had a tremendous influence upon Chinese aesthetics. As a result, we find man shown in landscapes in his true relationship to the universe, which is very small indeed.

Chinese painting has taken four forms: murals (Pi Hua), the most ancient form of painting, which was executed in fresco secco on the walls of temples and palaces. Hanging scrolls (Chou), which are probably derived from early Buddhist temple banners. These vertical compositions hung on the wall for short periods and then were rolled up and carefully stored for future display. Often, when they are especially old and valuable, these scrolls, as well as the other forms of painting, are brought out only for special occasions, such as a visit from a scholar and connoiseur. Hand scrolls (Shou Chiian), a uniquely Ear Eastern form, are long horizontal scrolls that never were intended to be unrolled throughout their entire length. They are unrolled from right to left, with about 30 inches of the painting exposed at a time. In this form the artist can express concepts of both space and time most graphically. Album collection (Ts'e Yeh) are of two kinds, those which are compilations of old paintings mounted in album form, and those pictures painted expressly to be in an album, usually in sets of 6, 8, or 10 leaves. In the first form, known as "album collections" (chi ts'e), the album is composed of small old paintings, fan paintings which have been removed from the sticks for preservation, and often fragments of larger old paintings which have been damaged. This form seems first to have become popular in the Sung dynasty (960-1279 A.D.). The custom of painting sets of pictures especially for albums probably developed in the Yuan dynasty, and was especially popular in the following Ming and Ch'ing dynasties.

The Artist's Materials

Silk and paper are used as the ground for the water-color technique of the Chinese artist. When the painting has been finished it is strengthened and backed with a much heavier paper and is framed on the face by a mounting of thin silk. Usually paper is chosen as the ground for the monochrome ink painting, and silk is preferred for the highly colored compositions. However, there is no hard and fast rule, and the choice is a personal matter for the painter to decide.

The most popular medium of the Chinese artist is ink. Because of the wide variety of shades which the artist can achieve through the use of more or less water and the manipulation of the applying brush, he prefers ink as a medium for displaying the quality of his brush work, which to the connoisseur is all important. This ink (mo) is made from pine soot mixed with glue and is molded into sticks which are often of fanciful shapes. The stick is ground on an ink stone with water and thus ink is prepared afresh in small quantities for the immediate use of the artist. Colors employed in Chinese painting are made from both mineral and vegetable substances mixed with glue and water, and are applied in light washes or thick ones, such as those used by Western artists.

These pigments are applied with brushes, which according to tradition have been used by the Chinese from about 200 B.C. They are made from the hairs of wolf, rabbit, goat, and other animals. The hairs are bound together and inserted in a bamboo holder. Very often the handles are made of lacquer, jade, or other precious materials. A tremendous variety in size and kind of brush is available to the artist.

A Chinese painter lays his paper or silk flat on a table, and with the brush held vertically in the same position as that used for writing he executes the brush strokes quickly and deftly. Sometimes he will rest his elbow on the table but more often he controls the movement from the shoulder. This free movement and the quickdrying water-color medium require a complete mastery of the brush, for any hesitation or correction is immediately visible.

Traditionally painting and calligraphy were invented by a minister of the Yellow Emperor (Huang Ti) about 2600 b.c. The earliest Chinese writing was pictographic, and probably at the outset painting and writing were almost identical. The earliest script appeared about 2000 or 1800 b.c. As calligraphy became more stylized and abstract, so too did painting. This close connection can be accounted for by the fact that the Chinese have always used the same tools and materials for writing and painting, and to this day calligraphy is considered a very great art, second only to painting.

Probably none of the earliest Chinese paint ings have been preserved. Certainly none have been discovered so far. However, we know that in the Chou dynasty (1027-256 B.c.) Chinese artists were at work, for the painted decorations on pottery, bronzes, and lacquer of the following Ch'in and Han dynasties (221 B.c.-220 A.D.) show an already advanced art. Some of the Han painted lacquer uncovered in graves in Korea gives us vivid examples of the painting of the period. The artists seem to have been concerned primarily, as is so often true in the early art of all countries, with the depiction of human events. The teachings of Confucius and the Taoist philosophy were the most important influences on Chinese life. Many of the subjects of the preserved paintings of the period ,were inspired by Confucianism and Taoism. In these early paintings landscape is not important. The artist, like his teacher, was primarily concerned with the activities of fellow human beings.

With the introduction of Buddhism to China from India in the 1st century A.D. came Indian, Central Asian, and even certain Iranian influences. The most famous Buddhist artist of the 4th century was Ku K'ai-chih (344?-?406 A.D.). One of the : earliest painters to devote himself to Buddhist themes, he is said to have decorated the walls of temples with amazingly realistic paintings. His landscapes are among the earliest to be mentioned by historians of Chinese art. One painting preserved in the British Museum gives some clues to his technique, although it is probably a copy by a late T'ang or early Sung artist. A hand scroll entitled "The Admonitions of the Imperial Preceptress," it shows the use of a flowing, subtle line, the ability to characterize human subjects, and a nice sense of composition.

The Six Canons

Although we know the names of famous artists- in the following years, no paintings by such men as Lu T'an-wei and Hsieh Ho have been preserved. However, the latter is famous for the "Six Canons" (Liu Fa) which he propounded, and which still serve as standards for art criticism. Their translation follows :
(1) Rhythmic Vitality, or Spiritual Rhythm expressed in the movement of life.
(2) The art of rendering the bones or anatomical structures by means of the brush.
(3) The drawing of forms which answer to natural forms.
(4) Appropriate distribution of the colors.
(5) Composition and subordination, or grouping according to the hierarchy of things.
(6) The transmission of classic models.

Considerable dispute has arisen over the interpretation of the first and most important canon, the ideal toward which Chinese painting has always striven. This desire to achieve a state of inspired creativeness which enables the artist to evoke through his art the movement of life is the highest goal of the Chinese artist.

Another Six Dynasties (265-589 A.D) painter who specialized in Buddhist themes was Chang Seng-yu. No paintings by his hand have survived, but he seems to have been the outstanding religious artist in a period when great artistic activity was associated with the erection of Buddhist and Taoist temples. In China itself no paintings of this period of religious enthusiasm have been preserved, but in the westernmost part of Kansu Province in Tunhwang-the oasis halting place of caravans moving between China and Central Asia and in Korea and Central Asia itself, many paintings have been preserved. The greatest numbers of them have been discovered in Buddhist cave temples at Tunhwang. The earliest murals here may have been executed in the 6th century. However, the paintings preserved at this site give us most important information about the painting style of the Sui (590-618 A.D.) and T'ang dynasties.

From decorated stones such as those which lined the walls of tombs and sacrificial halls and formed the sides of sarcophagi and Buddhist steles we can gather still more about the early developments of Chinese painting. Many of the aforementioned incised stones bear dates of the 6th century. On them often appear quite sophisticated scenes which include figures and houses set in well handled landscapes. This early, certainly, the subject that was to become the Chinese painters' favorite is well on its way. The treatment of human figures is still without interest in modeling, but the artist easily conveys a sense of solid moving forms.

In the 7th century, after a period of division, the Chinese Empire was consolidated under the T'ang dynasty (618-906 A.D.). It was a period of prosperity, and the art produced during the 300 years of its history has been compared with that of the Renaissance period in the West. Although almost all secular painting from this period has been lost, we have evidence of the style not only in the sculpture and decorated metal work but also in the religious paintings from Tunhwang.

Another indication of the style is still preserved in a few paintings in Japan, for during the T'ang dynasty Buddhism was introduced there and Japan became almost a cultural province of China. The great murals of the Horyuj i at Nara, unfortunately now almost destroyed by a recent fire but preserved by photographs and reproductions, give indication of the magnificent painting of the period. Some secular painting is still preserved in the Japanese treasure house of court furnishings, Shosoin, at Nara.

As the material wealth of China increased, her art became more sophisticated. Her doors were open to foreign influence as never before. As her empire expanded westward, emissaries and tribute bearers were constantly journeying back and forth. Indians, Persians, Turks, and Syrians immigrated to China, and the first large Jewish settlement was made there. As a result there was great interest in foreign customs and peoples, and the influence of both of them is reflected in the art.

Buddhism had converted to its teachings great numbers of Chinese, and missionaries were exchanged between India and China throughout the T'ang period. A strong Indian influence is strikingly evident in the religious painting of the T'ang dynasty. The Buddhas, which are reminiscent of the Indian prototype, show a preoccupation with modeling. Faces are rounder, expressions are more human, and a sensuous quality pervades Chinese art for the first time. Drapery, instead of hiding the body underneath, clings to and accentuates it. The figures have become mobile instead of static, and brilliant colors reflect the Indian taste. At the same time secular subjects receive much attention from artists, and scenes of court life are very popular. Here again landscape painting was further developed.

T'ang Artists

Two early T'ang masters, Yen Li-pen (died 673 A.D.) and Li Ssu-hsiin (c.651-716 or 720 A.D.) were outstanding. The former painted chiefly historical and Buddhist subjects. Li Ssu-hsun was primarily a landscape artist and is credited with founding what is known as the Northern school of landscape painting. This was not, as its name would imply, devoted purely to portraying the beauties of nature, but rather to landscapes which formed settings for magnificent palaces and pavilions. Brilliant mineral blues and greens, often accentuated with gold, are predominating colors in the artist's lively palette, and they give almost the effect of an elaborate brocade, so rich is the color and detail.

Two other artists were dominant in China in the later T'ang dynasty. According to tradition the greatest painter was Wu Tao-tzn (c.700-760). No work of his has survived, but again copies and written accounts give clues to the genius of the man. He is said to have executed hundreds of frescoes in the T'ang capital cities of Ch'angan and Loyang, as well as paintings of almost every description. His figure painting was particularly famous. His style was characterized by a bold brush, which conveyed the feeling of great power with a minimum of detail.

His contemporary Wang Wei (699-759) also painted frescoes and figures, but his fame lies in his ability as a landscape painter. A poet, Wang developed a poetic style of painting which was carried still further in the later Sung dynasty. He has been called the founder of the Southern school, and is said to have been the first artist to , paint purely in black ink, a technique which was further developed in the later dynasties.

Han Kan (active middle of 8th century), a painter of horses, and Chang Hsiian, who specialized in the painting of female figures, were popular artists of their day. The former delighted in painting the tribute horses of the emperor, and the latter produced some charming scenes of court ladies and their occupations. He greatly influenced the work of another figure painter who also preferred secular subjects, Chou Fang (780816).

After the fall of the T'ang dynasty a period of confusion existed for 54 years (907-960). It is known as the period of Five Dynasties. Landscape painting, often carried out in monochrome ink, was popular at this time. Some of the reported masters were Ching Hao, Li Ch'eng, Tung Yuan, and Chu-j an.

Despite the growing popularity of landscape painting, a number of fine artists were devoting themselves to genre subjects. Chou Wen-chu, who painted charming scenes of court life, is represented in collections today by a number of copies of his work. Huang Ch'iian, a highly admired master during his lifetime (d. 965), specialized in bird and flower painting and developed the technique of "boneless" painting, which eliminated the custom of outlining each form.

Sung Dynasty

The Sung dynasty (960-1279 A.D.) saw the highest development of Chinese painting. Many of the masters of the preceding dynasty worked in the early years of the new regime, but important new artists soon emerged. Kuo Hsi (c.1020-1090) was one of the first. He was a landscape painter of great ability, but his most notable contribution to art was an essay on landscape painting which clearly reflects the great influence of Ch'an Buddhism on the artist. He was a member of the Imperial Painting Academy, whose first director was the son of Huang Ch'iian-one Huang Chu-ts'ai, who also specialized in bird and flower painting. Many of his contemporaries, such as Chao Ch'ang and Ts'ui Po, followed his example. The paintings were meticuluosly executed, with notable success in bringing to life the beauties of nature.

In the 11th and 12th centuries the Chinese ideal of the Wen Jen began to develop. Wen Jen is a term applied to a man of literature, and has come to mean "literatus." Such a person was expected to be conversant with all facets of culture. So artists were now beginning to become scholars.

One of the outstanding intellectuals and artists was Su Shih (Tung-p'o, 1036-1101). His circle of friends included Mi Fei (1051-1107), Wen T'ung (d. 1079), and Li Lung-mien (Kunglin, c.1040-1106). Su Shih was a great poet and painter who confined himself primarily to the subject of bamboo. His friend Mi Fei was an enthusiastic collector of paintings and calligraphy and held many official positions. His brush technique was his own innovation. In it he almost entirely eliminated line and contour, and built up his landscapes out of splotches of ink. Wen T'ung was also famous as a painter of bamboo, but none of his original works have been preserved. These four great founders of the Northern Sung school were all Wen Jen, greatly influenced by Ch'an philosophy.

Chao Ta-nien (c.1080-1100) also worked in the Ch'an tradition, producing landscapes almost free of mountains and hills-a rare thing, for the Chinese word for landscape, span shui (mountains and water), prescribes them. Chao ignored this and devoted his talents to the treatment of flatter areas. He seemed absorbed in the problem of space. His other claim to fame was the fact that he became the art instructor of the great Sung emperor and painter Hui Tsung.

Li Lung-mien was a more conservative person, and painted with tremendous delicacy and elegance. He seemed to prefer the T'ang tradition of painting, and loved to do architectural landscapes, although he bowed to the trend of the times and painted in monochrome.

Under the Emperor Hui Tsung the Painting Academy reached the height of its influence. The emperor was a talented artist who specialized in bird and flower painting, but he was, as well, a collector of great taste and a patron possessed of very clear vision. The outstanding artists who were developed under his patronage were Li T'ang (1049-1130), Ma Fen, Su Han-ch'en, and Chao Po-chu. Li T'ang was a master of animal and figure painting. He specialized in the painting of water buffaloes. Ma Fen produced some of the most exquisite bird studies that we have. His depiction of birds in action is unsurpassed. Su Han-ch'en created charming and colorful genre paintings, usually built around the activities of children. And Chao created romantic landscapes.

In 1126 the emperor and the capital city of Kaifeng were captured by the Chin Tatars, who set up a new capital in Peking. However, the Chinese moved to the south and established their capital in Hangchow in 1138, and in a few .years the academy of painting was re-established. Here the Southern Sung school flourished and what is known as the classic era of Chinese landscape painting began. Ch'an Buddhism achieved an even greater following. Its teaching that the divine exists everywhere in everything led to the development of what was almost a cult of landscape painting. When the artist had accepted the teaching that everything of this world is illusion, it seemed natural that he should turn away from the outer trappings of color, detail, and trivial subjects and devote himself to expressing the inner truth in monochrome landscape. In these landscapes space and depth become all important. The possibility of suggesting space was explored, and to convey as much meaning with as little brush work as possible became the ultimate aim of the artist. Naturally the brush work and the ink tones became all important.

The two outstanding landscape artists in the Southern Sung school were Ma Yuan (c.1190c.1224) and Hsia Kiiei (c.1180-1230). Both men achieved the effect of tremendous distances through placing stress on the foreground and leading the spectator's eye through mountains and rivers and over bridges, much as the hermit or scholar in the painting travels.

Liang K'ai (active about 1203), a member of the academy, harked back in his early work to the great Wu Tao-tzu. He specialized in Buddhist subjects, and knew how to draw a line that was vigorous and all important. In direct contrast was Mu-ch'i, a Ch'an priest. His paintings, or those which are believed to have been his, are masterpieces. His consummate understatement succeeds in expressing the thought that the divine is to be found within man himself. Perhaps one of the most specialized of the Sung artists was Ch'en Jung, some of whose favorite dragons are still preserved. Through his treatment of these fantastic creatures he calls forth the forces of nature which the dragon symbolizes.

The religious painters of the period seem torn between T'ang tradition and the contemporary movement, and even in narrative paintings the emphasis on landscape is strong.

Yuan Dynasty

Genghis Khan conquered North China in 1215, and his son, Kublai Khan, conquered Southern China in 1279. Thus was established the Mongol dynasty which was known as the Yuan and had as its capital the city of Peking. There Kublai Khan established an academy of painting to which he invited the Southern Sung artists. He was in many ways an enlightened ruler, and during the 80 years of the dynasty many great Chinese painters practiced their art.

Naturally a number of the Sung painters lived into the period of the Yuan dynasty. Outstanding among them was Ch'ien Hsiian (1235c.1290), a member of the Southern academy. His greatest forte was the ease and grace with which he expressed the beauties of nature. His color was rich and subtle, with atmospheric overtones. To the day of his death he was a true follower of the Sung traditions.

Chao Meng-fu (1254-1322) became secretary of war for the khan and was one of the most highly respected of the Chinese painters of the period. He excelled in painting portraits, and showed his Mongol ponies, with which he was exceedingly familiar, in a very naturalistic manner. His wife, Kuan Tao-sheng, was also a famous artist who specialized in painting bamboo. Other contemporaries were the landscape painter Kao K'o-kung, and the great figure painter Kung K'ai. The latter was an eccentric who painted with a devastating naturalism. This tendency toward realism was followed by Yen Hui and Ten Jen-fa.

In the 14th century the horizon of Chinese art was dominated by the four great landscape artists Huang Kung-wang (1269-1354), Wu Chen (1280-1354), Ni Tsan (1301-1374), and Wang Meng (1308-1385). Huang painted much in the manner of the Sung landscape painters; Wu specialized in painting bamboo, and employed ink contrasts that are unusually dramatic. Ni Tsan was the most individual of the four. His landscapes have an almost empty quality and give the impression of bright sunlight. He used a rather dry brush, which is indicative of the overall restraint of his technique. Wang Meng's technique was almost pointillistic. Some artists, still following their predecessors, became members of the Ch'an Buddhist sect and others even went to Japan, carrying the tradition with them.

Fortunately, a number of wall paintings from the Yuan dynasty are preserved. Their subjects are usually Buddhist or Taoist. Beautifully executed and conceived, they are full of movement and color and give the effect of a pageant.

Ming Dynasty

After 80 years of the subtly enervating influence of Chinese civilization, the Mongol rulers were overthrown by a renewed Chinese nationalist movement and the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) was established.

Under the first Ming emperor, Hung Wu, China's frontiers were closed to foreigners. This isolation continued until the beginning of the 16th century. For the first time in over a hundred years a Chinese emperor ruled the Middle Kingdom and the national pride of heritage was encouraged. Instead of being interested in and influenced by foreign customs, the Chinese turned their attention to their own cultural heritage, and in painting there was a tendency to imitate the great masters of the T'ang and Sung dynasties.

The three outstanding early Ming painters were Wang Fu (1362-1416), Hsia Ch'ang (1388-1470), and Wang Mien (1355-1407). Wang Fu painted in the Sung tradition and specialized in bamboo, as did his pupil Hsia Ch'ang. Wang Mien painted charming studies of plum blossoms, the favorite Chinese symbol of spring. As the dynasty progressed, the Chinese painters showed a tendency to adhere to two different schools, namely the Che school, named after the province of Chekiang, and the Wen Jen, the school of the literati-or, as it is also known, the Wu-men school, named after the town of Wu-men, which is modern Suchow in Kiangsu Province.

Tai Chin (active 1430-1450), the founder of the Che school, was in reaction against the traditional art of the Ming Academy. He was a professional artist rather than a scholar painter and, unfortunately, he and his colleagues were held in contempt by the other literati. The quality of the painting produced by the members of this school probably reached its height in the 15th century when Wu Wei (1459-1508) was pre-eminent. Certain artists, such as Hsiang Sheng-mo (1597-1658) and Ting Yun-p'eng (1585-1625), worked each in his own individual style and cannot be classified as members of any one school.

The founder of the Wu school was Shen Chou (1427-1509). He was a scholar, connoisseur, and poet, as well as a great painter, for he had a profound creative genius. His paintings were remarkable for their almost lyrical quality. His pupil Wen Chang-ming (1470-1559), who developed a style of his own, was considered one of the four great masters of the Ming dynasty, along with his famous master Shen. Many of his numerous paintings are preserved today. The other two members of this Wu school were T'ang Yin (1470-1523) and Ch'iu Ying (1st half of 16th century). T'ang Yin was a fine landscape painter. Ch'iu Ying was notable for his highly colored style, in which brilliant blues and greens predominate.

In the late Ming dynasty the artist scholar Tung Ch'i-ch'ang (1555-1636) stands pre-eminent. He was not only an aesthete but also a collector, statesman, art critic, and the leading landscape painter of his period. His calligraphy had a unique style, and was copied down through the Ch'ing dynasty. Perhaps his greatest contribution was his historical treatment of the development of Chinese art. Unfortunately, the eclectic trend which was in supremacy toward the end of the Ming dynasty tended to direct artists into set formulas of painting, and the great spirit of individual creation often seems lacking in the painting of the period.

Ch'ing Dynasty

As the Ming dynasty was declining the Manchus in the north took advantage of its weaknesses and conquered the last great Chinese dynasty in 1644. They kept the city of Peking as capital, and although over a long period of time the emperors were preoccupied with subjugating outlying sections of the country, the Chinese artists worked on. The two most remarkable periods of the Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1912) were each 60 years long. The first fell in the rule of the Emperor K'ang-hsi (r. 1662-1722), and the second came under his grandson Ch'ien Lung (r. 1736-1796). The outstanding artists who were favorites at the court were the so-called "four Wangs." These men all belonged to the literati and specialized in landscape painting. They are Wang Shih-min (1592-1680), who liked to paint the seasonal phases of landscapes and to embellish them with many details; Wang Chien (1598-1667), who was influenced by the Yuan artist Ni Tsan; Wang Hui (1632-1717); and Wang Yuan-ch'i (1642-1715), who was a high official and. a great scholar as well as an artist of fine technical ability. Many Chinese consider him to be the outstanding painter among the four Wangs.

In contrast to these Wen Yen painters was Yun Shou-p'ing (1632-1690). He remained faithful to the Ming regime and would not associate with the court. He used the boneless technique of painting, and established his reputation chiefly as a flower painter. Also in the same category was Chu Ta (1626-1705). He was an eccentric, a scion of the Ming imperial house, and he retired to become a Buddhist priest. His rapid ink paintings of birds and flowers show him to be a talented and original artist. Other priest artists were Tao-chi (1630-c.1707), who wrote an important treatise on painting, and K'un Ts'an, active between 1650 and 1675.

During the reign of the Emperor Ch'ien Lung many artists profited from his patronage. Among them were Tsou I-Kuei (1686-1772) and Ching T'ing-piao, who were associated in the court workshops with the Jesuit artists Castiglione and Attiret. The emperor was particularly fascinated by the Western manner of painting and encouraged his court artists to copy it. Some achieved this mixture of East and West with a modicum of success, but, generally speaking, the Western influence led to the deterioration of Chinese painting. From the 19th century on, the struggle between Chinese and Western traditions continued, not only in the field of painting but in the whole body of culture. In painting, the Chinese are even adopting the Western oil medium. Although sometimes a single artist may master both techniques, this attempt at synthesis has not been notably successful.